Carnegie Mellon University

Modernized Japan: Cinematography Taking the World by Storm

Angela Zhang
Carnegie Mellon University - Japanese Studies

Abstract: In the flood of new filmmaking styles and techniques during the Japanese New Wave, one simply can not ignore the bizarre nature of Hiroshi Teshigahara's The Face of Another. Despite its lack of international recognition, the film had a significant impact on Japanese cinematography. Through unconventional means of blending the abstract with reality, Teshigahara draws his audience into a story exploring themes of identity and existentialism. This essay first delves into some of the most iconic cinematographic techniques used in The Face of Another, then compares them to Tokyo Drifter, another revolutionary surrealist film from this time. From analyzing these two films, we see their unique yet captivating styles reshaping Japanese film-making as the country transitions to the modern era.

 

1. Introduction

The research question posed was: What have you learned about Japanese culture from the work(s) of your choice?

Japan’s modernization served as one of the main causes for the international rise of their cinematography industry; throughout the 20th century, Japanese filmmakers pioneered novel techniques along with intriguing storylines that captivated audiences and filmmakers worldwide. When American Admiral Perry demanded isolationist Japan to open its borders in 1853, it was followed by the rapid industrialization of the East Asian country. “Westerners” flooded in, bringing their culture and technology with them (Beech). This culture shock inspired countless works, both written and visual, and opened the possibility for them to be brought overseas; the film industry was no exception to this phenomenon. Japan’s booming cinematic industry can be marked by three internationally renowned films: Rashomon, Tokyo Drifter, and Kimi no Na Wa, respectively directed by Akira Kurosawa (1910-1998), Seijun Suzuki (1923-2017), and Makoto Shinkai (1973-present). Each of these films was significantly influenced by the modernization of Japan in both style and cinematographic techniques, overall capturing over multiple generations how modernization spurred the Japanese cinematic industry into one of the largest in the world today (Wikipedia). The films will each be explored in two ways: the influence of modernization on the film, and the film’s impact on the international market.

Rashomon (1950) dissected the themes of truth and justice, subtly presenting a commentary on the American Occupation. It was one of the first Japanese films to make its mark in the international film industry and pioneered countless advanced film techniques. Tokyo Drifter (1966) presented a nonsensical parody of the action/gang (or in Japan, yakuza) genre. Despite the often-confusing storyline, the film’s revolutionary action shots later inspired countless other film directors. With its wide city shots and unique use of color, the film highlights the modernized aspects of Japan after the Tokyo Olympics of 1964. Finally, Kimi no Na Wa (2016) was an animated tale of two lovers separated over time and space. The film fully embodies the connection between the cultural and industrialized aspects of modern-day Japan, along with responding to the Fukushima-Daiichi tragedy from 2011. It remains one of the most best-selling films in Japan not directed by Hayao Miyazaki and opened doors for other Japanese animated films to an international audience.

2.1 Rashomon Subtheses and Evidence

The story of Rashomon was greatly influenced by real-world events and the Western occupation of Japan. Based on “In a Grove”, Rashomon deals with an obscured truth surrounding the murder of a samurai. Kurosawa’s film, in both its portrayal of rape, murder and the ambiguity of truth, provides a commentary on the postwar American Occupation. During the time of Rashomon’s making, “the often wild and unlawful conduct of the American forces stationed in Japan, some of which manifested as incidents of the rape of Japanese women… [caused] the public acceptance of the American presence… [to be] at its lowest...” (Maunula) This discontent is reflected in the film’s main plot; throughout all of the different recountings, the two immutable events is the bandit’s raping of the samurai’s wife and the murder of the samurai. With the samurai being a key symbol of traditional Japan, these two unarguable plot points symbolize Western influences in modernization killing Japanese culture. In addition to the events in the film, the bandit’s crude, deceitful nature fits in with the stereotypical characterization of Westerners, similar to their portrayal in Samurai Champloo: Baseball Blues. Overall, these points all serve to establish Kurosawa’s message on the negative aspects of the American Occupation in Japan, both harming the country’s culture and its people.

This rejection of modernization extends throughout the entire film. The main shots take place in a traditional temple, a deep forest, and a traditional Japanese court with no walls and with all the characters kneeling on the floor speaking up to a judge. There are no signs of novel technology or industrialization. Despite its release just 16 years before Tokyo Drifter, there is a striking difference between Kurosawa’s focus on tradition and Suzuki’s embrace of pop culture and industrialized Japan, making Rashomon’s message even more clear.

In addition to Rashomon’s plot being influenced by the modernization of Japan, Kurosawa was able to pioneer novel film-making techniques internationally. With the opening of Japan to the international world, Rashomon was able to reach a wide audience, receiving countless awards such as the Golden Lion at the 1951 Venice Film Festival and becoming notably well-received in America. Some of his most innovative cinematographic techniques included “the wipe” transition, the use of mirrors to achieve optimal lighting and long continuous action shots. Many of these techniques were later used in countless other films, such as the renowned Star Wars (Wikipedia).

Japanese filmmakers deviate slightly from the categories and timelines presented in Goossen’s introduction. Akira Kurosawa fits in with many of the Generations. Along with Yasujiro Ozu, Kurosawa is a Trail-Blazer for the modern Japanese film industry, creating films that became renowned internationally and pioneering a multitude of new cinematic techniques. However, his film Rashomon also delves into the same topics with Survivors in the urge to protect Japanese culture from Western influence. His film fits in with the Legacy of Stories of Social Comment as well as creating a new, more specific Legacy: Stories of Human Nature. His methods of storytelling in Rashomon fully explore the notions of truth and justice. This new legacy is also where The Face of Another (1966) resides.

 2.2 Tokyo Drifter Subtheses and Evidence

During the time of Post-Occupational Japan, the Japanese were divided amongst themselves in how to define themselves. The 1964 Olympics in Tokyo served as a moment for Japan to rejoin the international community and fully embrace the modernization of the West; on the other hand, many others remained adamant on maintaining Japanese identity, with riots and protests that flooded the streets. This political stress peaked with the signing of the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, and the revolt continues throughout the 60s.

In this time of political turmoil, Tokyo Drifter intrigued viewers by instead highlighting the transformed Post-Olympics Tokyo. The film is popping with cultural references and vibrant colors signature to the ‘60s, with many scenes reminiscent of similar Western action films. Suzuki’s work fully embraces Western influences, merging it with Japanese traditions and thoroughly blurring the lines between the two cultures. As Hampton describes in his movie review,  Tokyo Drifter was an engraved invitation to the 24-7 party of the sixties, the flip side of the assassinations and napalm and anguish, indulging the pop love of surfaces and artifacts over Freudian anxieties or Marxian imperatives.” Suzuki’s film entirely embodies the rise of Western culture in Japan; we see the main yakuza characters wearing traditional Western suits rather than expensive kimonos. The expansive shots of 60s style nightclubs and popping contemporary art flesh out the movie and stylishly demonstrate the impact of Westernization. While Rashomon cautioned its audience on the rise of modernization, Tokyo Drifter fully embraces it.

Suzuki’s use of color and wardrobe expertly conveyed the emotions and themes in the show. For instance, at the beginning of the film, Tetsu wears a pale blue suit, and his boss wears plain, “everyday person’s” clothes. However, in the final scene, the rift between Tetsu and his boss is immediately apparent by the contrast between their black and white suit colors. His direction on fight scenes directly inspired other gang film directors, including Quentin Tarantino and Park Chan-Wook. One particularly notable fight is the bar fight scene; although seemingly chaotic, the camera follows a distinct trail of motion, following Tetsu as he combats his way through a sea of people. While he moves, the people around him also actively blend in and out of the main scene. At one point, a male in the background rushes forward to hit Tetsu on the head with a chair, before rushing off to join the other chaos. This overall gives a balanced sense of cohesion and coordination in the scene along with disorder and commotion. Although his films were considered B-movies, not garnering nearly as much attention as Kurosawa and Ozu, he used undeniably interesting and novel filming techniques that fully captured the audience’s attention.

Although focusing away from political turmoil, Tokyo Drifter still contains the echos of a power struggle. The main character Tetsu attempts to become a drifter and walk his own path, escaping temporarily from the yakuza struggles between his former gang leader Kurata and rival gang leader Otsuka. However, despite his efforts, Tetsu continuously is haunted by the opposing Tetsu and eventually returns to Tokyo to challenge both leaders for Chiharu’s freedom. The underlying power struggle between the yakuza gangs mirrors the political conflicts occurring in Japan throughout the time of the film’s production.

Seijun Suzuki falls under the Entertainer Generation, his movie completely blurring the lines between Japanese and Western cultures. Suzuki also becomes a Trail-Blazer for contemporary film-making (the Japanese New Wave) with his use of non-linear storytelling and symbolic color palette. Tokyo Drifter does not fit exactly with any of the Legacies in Goossen’s introduction; although containing themes of Love, it appears to be more focused on the themes of loneliness and self-searching. The film may also mark the beginning of a new Legacy, one that highlights the merging of cultures and the effects of modernization overall.

 2.3 Kimi no Na Wa Subtheses and Evidence

Through his film Kimi no Na Wa, Makoto Shinkai weaves an incredulous tale surrounding the blooming romance between two characters separated by time and space. The plot revolves around the imaginary rural village of Itomori being devastated by a meteor strike. In this film, Shinkai addresses not only the tragic aftermath of natural disasters but also the concerning issue of rural Japanese areas disappearing with the country’s current transition into becoming more modern and urban.

With the film’s production beginning in 2014, Japan was still recovering, both from physical and emotional damage caused by the tragic Fukushima-Daiichi disaster of 2011. The area was decimated by three disasters: a devastating earthquake, followed by a 15-meter tsunami and finally leading to a nuclear plant meltdown (World Nuclear Association). These events had a direct correlation to the main plotline of Kimi no Na Wa. In addition to demonstrating the struggles of recovering from disaster, Shinkai stresses the need to preserve traditional culture in our modernized world. He portrays the contrast between the two aspects of Japan (modernized and traditional) through the two main characters, expertly capturing the beauty of both. In his article, St. Michel describes “Your Name (Kimi no Na Wa) brings into sharp focus a broader fear that older Japanese traditions will vanish alongside smaller towns. Little touches, like scenes featuring “local mascots” and teens taking labored photos of pancakes, help bring this old-versus-new conflict to life onscreen.” (St. Michel)

The theme of recovering from a disaster is greatly explored throughout the film. Right at the beginning of the film, the audience is presented with the meteor that devastates Itomori; however, over half the film passes before the actual event occurs. Shinkai demonstrates that, regardless of preemptive knowledge, natural disasters could happen at any moment, striking without warning. The non-chronological structure of the story also generates a message of helplessness, as with a second viewing, the audience knows of the upcoming disaster but is unable to prevent it in any way. Emotional distraught associated with loss is also effectively conveyed through Taki’s character. At first, Taki and his friends take the normal, societal stance towards the devastating meteor strike — with three years having passed since the incident, each character has vague recollections of its occurrence, but the emotions have certainly worn off. However, after Taki bonds with Mitsuha through their body swaps and personally knows the town, he becomes intensely attached to it. His first encounter with the decimated Itomori is shown with a slow, panning shot that mirrors his disbelief and horror at the destruction. Another perspective Shinkai explores is Mitsuha’s reaction to her own death; in Taki’s body, she is able to witness the aftermath of the meteor strike on her town, and she falls to her knees in despair at the sight. Through these intricately animated shots, Shinkai effectively demonstrates the emotional trauma that comes with such a disaster. He draws a clear parallel to real-world events and advocates the importance of empathy in the face of such tragedies.

In addition to exploring tragedy, Kimi no Na Wa serves to depict the need for balance between modernization and traditionalism. Essentially, Shinkai captures both Kurosawa’s concern and Suzuki’s acceptance of modernization. The story swaps between two character: Mitsuha from the rural Itomori and Taki from urban Tokyo. Mitsuha consistently expresses embarrassment towards her town’s traditions, longing to live in modern life. On the other hand, Taki is initially portrayed as a typical “city boy”, but is able to find beauty in the countryside and Mitsuha’s threads, filling his room with sketches of the landscape he sees. When discovering that Itomori was in danger, both characters work together in order to prevent the comet strike. Additionally, through using the art of animation, Kimi no Na Wa showcases a recurring motif of traditionally woven threads, metaphorically tying the rural and urban worlds together. Through this storyline, Shinkai’s message is clear: beauty exists in both modernized and traditional Japan, and it is essential to preserve the fading Japanese traditions in the face of today’s modern Japan.

Makoto Shinkai fits into the generation of Settlers for Japanese animation, building upon the trail set by Hayao Miyazaki. Along with topping the sales charts in Japan itself, the film gained significant recognition internationally, opening doors for future Japanese anime films; the 2018 animated film Mirai, for instance, earned worldwide recognition and was even nominated for the 2019 Oscars award. Kimi no Na Wa fits into the Legacy of Love. However, the film not only highlights the romance building between Mitsuha and Taki, but also a more general category of love for modernization, tradition, and beauty. Shinkai stresses the need for balance between the rush for urbanization and respect for traditions, strongly urging his audience to take action in preserving the latter. Another new Legacy this film fits into is the Story of Tragedy; we see a similar theme in many of the works from Survivors authors, such as The Empty Can and The Blind Chinese Soldiers. These stories wrangle with the emotional and physical trauma that comes with experiencing tragedy. Many of these works also engage in conversation on the responses of those not directly affected by the event, but are witnesses or close to those who were — essentially, the response of others in society. The nonchalance many in society take is portrayed and critiqued, leading the audience to question their own thoughts and actions in response to these events.

 

3. Conclusion

In order to answer the question “What have you learned about Japanese culture from the work(s) of your choice?”, I analyzed three films: Rashomon by Akira Kurosawa, Tokyo Drifter by Seijun Suzuki, and Kimi no Na Wa by Makoto Shinkai. Each of these three films was significantly impacted by the modernization of Japan in different ways. The propagation of Western influence formed the core of each film’s plot and characterization, and modernization opened the Japanese film industry to the international audience.

Rashomon portrays a commentary on the loss of Japanese culture due to the increasing Western influence, taking a stance against the American Occupation and modernization as a whole. Despite this, its film techniques greatly influenced international filmmakers, winning countless significant awards and expanding Japanese films to a broader audience. Tokyo Drifter, on the other hand, fully embraced modernization with its expansive shots of modern Tokyo and pop culture. Rather than placing the focus on the political turmoil in Post-Occupational Japan, the film instead highlights the Westernized fashion and designs, along with the industrialization of Tokyo; however, it never fully escapes the notion of politics and power struggles. The film’s innovative shots also influenced numerous other action film directors. Finally, Kimi no Na Wa provides a modern perspective on both the beauty of modernization and the need to preserve Japanese traditions. It fully explores the physical and emotional trauma associated with the aftermath of a disaster. The film’s use of animation enables it to tell an endearing, symbolic storyline that made its international reception second to only Miyazaki and opened possibilities for Japanese animated films to gain recognition from Western audiences.

Overall, these three films capture important developments in Japan’s modernization throughout the past century. Their storylines and international reception make them irremovable from the context of modernization, and hence provide a comprehensive view of Japanese culture through the lens of modernization.

Works

Kimi no Na Wa. Directed by Makoto Shinkai, Toho, 2016.

Rashomon. Directed by Akira Kurosawa, performances by Machiko Kyo, Masayuki Mori, Toshiro Mifune, Takashi Shimura, Minoru Chiaki, 1950.

Tokyo Drifter. Directed by Seijun Suzuki, Nikkatsu, 1966.

Bibliography

Beech, Philip. “Early Westernization & Modernization in Japan 1868-1900.” Japan Visitor. Accessed 3 March 2019. www.japanvisitor.com/japanese-culture/history/westernization.

“Cinema of Japan.” Wikipedia. Accessed 23 March 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Japan.

“Fukushima Daiichi Accident.” World Nuclear Association. October 2018. Accessed 23 April 2019. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-pla
nts/fukushima-accident.aspx.

Goossen, Theodore W. (1997) “Introduction. In Goossen ed.” The Oxford Book of Japanese Short Stories (pp. xi-xxxi). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hampton, Howard. “Tokyo Drifter: Catch My Drift.” The Criterion Collection. 13 December 2011. Accessed 3 March 2019. https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/2095-tokyo-drifter-catch-my-drift.

Maunula, Vill. “Rashomon as a response to postwar Japan.” Akira Kurosawa info, Discussion post. 22 August 2015. Accessed 3 March 2019. https://akirakurosawa.info/forums/topic/rashomon-as-a-response-to-postwar-japan/.

“Rashomon” Wikipedia. Accessed 23 March 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashomon

St. Michel, Patrick. “How Your Name Became Japan’s Biggest Movie in Years.” The Atlantic, 8 April 2017. Accessed 3 March 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/04/how-your-name-became-japans-biggest-movie-in-years/522279/.